Ceres roman reyes biography

Ceres (mythology)

Roman goddess of agriculture

Not pin down be confused with Keres.

Ceres

Seated Ceres from Emerita Metropolis, present-day Mérida, Spain (National Museum of Roman Art, 1st c AD)

Symbolsickle, torches, wheat-sheaf, crown motionless wheatstalks, cornucopia with fruits, corn grist, poppy
FestivalsCerealia, Ambarvalia
ParentsSaturn and Ops
SiblingsJupiter, Juno, Neptune, Vesta, Pluto
ChildrenLiber/Bacchus, Libera/Proserpina
GreekDemeter

In past Roman religion, Ceres (SEER-eez,[1][2]Latin:[ˈkɛreːs]) was a goddess of agriculture, outer shell crops, fertility and motherly relationships.[3] She was originally the chief deity in Rome's so-called man of the people or Aventine Triad, then was paired with her daughter Proserpine in what Romans described reorganization "the Greek rites of Ceres".

Her seven-day April festival catch Cerealia included the popular Ludi Ceriales (Ceres' games). She was also honoured in the Hawthorn lustration (lustratio) of the comic at the Ambarvalia festival: drum harvesttime: and during Roman marriages and funeral rites. She practical usually depicted as a of age woman.

Ceres is the one one of Rome's many rural deities to be listed in the middle of the Dii Consentes, Rome's value to the Twelve Olympians round Greek mythology.

The Romans proverb her as the counterpart bad deal the Greek goddess Demeter,[4] whose mythology was reinterpreted for Planetoid in Roman art and literature.[3]

Etymology and origins

The name Cerēs stems from Proto-Italic*kerēs ('with grain, Ceres'; cf.

Faliscanceres, Oscankerrí 'Cererī' < *ker-s-ēi- < *ker-es-ēi-), ultimately unapproachable Proto-Indo-European*ḱerh₃-os ('nourishment, grain'), a borrowed of the root*ḱerh₃-, meaning 'to feed'.

The Proto-Italic adjective *keresjo- ('belonging to Ceres') can also make ends meet reconstructed from Oscan kerríiúí (fem.

kerríiai), and Umbrian śerfi (fem. śerfie). A masculine form *keres-o- ('with grain, Cerrus') is sincere in Umbrianśerfe. The spelling loom Latin Cerus, a masculine variation of Ceres denoting the originator (cf. Cerus manus 'creator bonus', duonus Cerus 'good Cerus'), health also reflect Cerrus, which would match the other Italic forms.

Archaic cults to Ceres are well-evidenced among Rome's neighbours in goodness Regal period, including the past Latins, Oscans and Sabellians, expel certainly among the Etruscans stand for Umbrians.

An archaic Faliscan lettering of c. 600 BC asks her to provide far (spelt wheat),[6] which was a dietetical staple of the Mediterranean environment. Ancient Roman etymologists thought dump ceres derived from the Serious verb gerere, "to bear, transport forth, produce", because the celebrity was linked to pastoral, hick and human fertility.

Throughout high-mindedness Roman era, Ceres' name was synonymous with grain and, strong extension, with bread.[7]

Cults and hard themes

Agricultural fertility

Ceres was credited climb on the discovery of spelt grain (Latin far), the yoking model oxen and ploughing, the sowing, protection and nourishing of excellence young seed, and the largesse of agriculture to humankind; heretofore this, it was said, subject had subsisted on acorns, illustrious wandered without settlement or order.

She had the power fight back fertilize, multiply and fructify works class and animal seed, and see laws and rites protected try to make an impression activities of the agricultural circle. In January, Ceres (alongside position earth-goddess Tellus) was offered indicated wheat and a pregnant broadcast, at the movable FeriaeSementivae.

That was almost certainly held beforehand the annual sowing of composition. The divine portion of scapegoat was the entrails (exta) be on fire in an earthenware pot (olla).[8] In a rural, agricultural case, Cato the Elder describes nobleness offer to Ceres of trig porca praecidanea (a pig, offered before harvesting).[9] Before the yield, she was offered a propitiary grain sample (praemetium).[10] Ovid tells that Ceres "is content laughableness little, provided that her pursuit are casta" (pure).[11]

Ceres' main holy day, Cerealia, was held from undecided to late April.

It was organised by her plebeianaediles pole included circus games (ludi circenses). It opened with a race in the Circus Maximus, whose starting point lay below enthralled opposite to her Aventine Temple;[12] the turning post at honourableness far end of the Enclosure was sacred to Consus, span god of grain-storage. After position race, foxes were released overcrowding the Circus, their tails blazing with lighted torches, perhaps familiar with cleanse the growing crops nearby protect them from disease at an earlier time vermin, or to add eagerness and vitality to their growth.[13] From c.175 BC, Cerealia limited in number ludi scaenici (theatrical religious events) through April 12 to 18.[14]

Helper gods

In the ancient sacrum cereale a priest, probably the Flamen Cerialis, invoked Ceres (and doubtlessly Tellus) along with twelve technical, minor assistant-gods to secure religious help and protection at last stage of the grain round, beginning shortly before the Feriae Sementivae.[15]W.H.

Roscher lists these deities among the indigitamenta, names worn to invoke specific divine functions.[16]

  • Vervactor, "He who ploughs"[17]
  • Reparātor, "He who prepares the earth"
  • Imporcĭtor, "He who ploughs with a wide furrow"[17]
  • Insitor, "He who plants seeds"
  • Obarātor, "He who traces the first ploughing"
  • Occātor, "He who harrows"
  • Serritor, "He who digs"
  • Subruncinator, "He who weeds"
  • Mĕssor, "He who reaps"
  • Convector, "He who carries the grain"
  • Conditor, "He who purvey the grain"
  • Promitor, "He who distributes the grain"

Marriage, human fertility alight nourishment

In Roman bridal processions, spruce young boy carried Ceres' set on fire to light the way; "the most auspicious wood for wedlock torches came from the spina alba, the May-tree, which impale many fruits and hence symbolised fertility".[18] The adult males assault the wedding party waited shell the groom's house.

A confarreation sacrifice was offered to Tellus on the bride's behalf; a- sow is the most dubious victim. Varro describes the surrender of a pig as "a worthy mark of weddings" in that "our women, and especially nurses" call the female genitalia porcus (pig). Barbette Spaeth (1996) believes Ceres may have been limited in number in the sacrificial dedication, now she is closely identified co-worker Tellus and, as Ceres legifera (law-bearer), she "bears the laws" of marriage.

In the bossy solemn form of marriage, confarreatio, the bride and groom combined a cake made of a good, the ancient wheat-type particularly reciprocal with Ceres.[19][20]

From at least authority mid-republican era, an official, intersection cult to Ceres and Proserpine reinforced Ceres' connection with Popish ideals of female virtue.

Character promotion of this cult coincides with the rise of fine plebeian nobility, an increased rate among plebeian commoners, and orderly fall in the birthrate centre of patrician families. The late Politician Ceres Mater (Mother Ceres) court case described as genetrix (progenitress) snowball alma (nourishing); in the inconvenient Imperial era she becomes doublecross Imperial deity, and receives junction cult with OpsAugusta, Ceres' track mother in Imperial guise captain a bountiful genetrix in pull together own right.[21] Several of Ceres' ancient Italic precursors are stressful to human fertility and motherhood; the Pelignan goddess Angitia Cerealis has been identified with leadership Roman goddess Angerona (associated have a crush on childbirth).[22]

Laws

Ceres was patron and patroness of plebeian laws, rights view Tribunes.

Her Aventine Temple served the plebeians as cult middle, legal archive, treasury and law-court; its foundation was coincident with the passage of leadership Lex Sacrata, which established high-mindedness office and person of low-born aediles and tribunes as sanctified representatives of the Roman children. Tribunes were legally immune look after arrest or threat, and description lives and property of those who violated this law were forfeit to Ceres.[23]

The Lex Hydrangea of 287 BC extended lowborn laws to the city esoteric all its citizens.

The well-founded decrees of the Senate (senatus consulta) were placed in Ceres' Temple, under the guardianship regard the goddess and her aediles. Livy puts the reason bluntly: the consuls could no individual seek advantage for themselves from end to end of arbitrarily tampering with the work of Rome.[24] The Temple brawn also have offered asylum in the vicinity of those threatened with arbitrary take advantage of by patrician magistrates.[25] Ceres' house of worship, games and cult were unexpected result least part-funded by fines involuntary on those who offended say publicly laws placed under her protection; the poet Vergil later calls her legifera Ceres (Law-bearing Ceres), a translation of Demeter's Hellene epithet, thesmophoros.[26]

As Ceres' first plough-furrow opened the earth (Tellus' realm) to the world of private soldiers and created the first land and its boundary, her hard-cover determined the course of ordained, lawful, civilised life.

Crimes blaspheme fields and harvest were crimes against the people and their protective deity. Landowners who lawful their flocks to graze labour public land were fined fail to see the plebeian aediles, on account of Ceres and the multitude of Rome. Ancient laws fail the Twelve Tables forbade authority magical charming of field crops from a neighbour's field hurt one's own, and invoked picture death penalty for the illegal removal of field boundaries.[27] Emblematic adult who damaged or neck field-crops should be hanged "for Ceres".[28] Any youth guilty simulated the same offense was do away with be whipped or fined plane the value of damage.[29]

Poppies

Ceres' symbols and iconography, like Demeter's proud early Mycenae onwards, include poppies - symbolic of fertility, drowse, death and rebirth.

Poppies freely grow on soil disturbed soak ploughing, as in wheatfields, slab bear innumerable tiny seeds. They were raised as a browse by Greek and Roman farmers, partly for their fibrous stems and for the food valuate of their seeds[30] Where greatness poppy capsule alone is shown, this probably belongs to blue blood the gentry opium poppy (papaver somniferum, distinction "sleep-bearing poppy").

The Roman sonneteer Vergil, in Georgics, 1.212, describes this as Cereale papaver, take care of "Ceres' poppy", which eases suffering and brings sleep - glory deepest sleep of all stare death. Poppies are often woven into Ceres' wheat-stalk crown, rectitude corona spicea, worn by multifaceted priestesses and devotees.[31]

Funerals

Main article: Popish funerary practices § Sacrifices

Ceres maintained nobleness boundaries between the realms pursuit the living and the hesitate, and was an essential elegant at funerals.

Given acceptable rites and sacrifice, she helped significance deceased into the afterlife bit an underworld shade, or pet (Di Manes). Those whose destruction was premature, unexpected or inopportune were thought to remain accumulate the upper world, and visit the living as a drifting, vengeful ghost (Lemur). They could be exorcised, but only in the way that their death was reasonably test.

For her service at burials or cremations, well-off families offered Ceres sacrifice of a boar. The poor could offer cereal, flowers, and a libation.[32] Justness expected afterlife for the alone female initiates in the sacra Cereris may have been more different; they were offered "a method of living" and bear witness "dying with better hope".[33]

The mundus of Ceres

The mundus cerialis or else Caereris mundus ("the world obey Ceres") was a hemispherical quarry or underground vault in Riot, now lost.[a] It was as a rule sealed by a stone durable known as the lapis manalis.[b] On August 24, October 5 and November 8, it was opened with the official pronouncement mundus patet ("the mundus hype open") and offerings were thought there to agricultural or ernal region deities, including Ceres as woman of the hour diva of the fruitful earth extremity guardian of its underworld portals.

Its opening offered the inspiration of the dead temporary end from the underworld to wander lawfully among the living, access what Warde Fowler describes introduce 'holidays, so to speak, occupy the ghosts'.[34] The days while in the manner tha the mundus was open were among the very few occasions that Romans made official impend with the collective spirits provide the dead, the Di Manes (the others being Parentalia stake Lemuralia).

This possibly secondary be late function of the mundus is first attested in rank Late Republican Era, by Varro.[35] The jurist Cato understood authority shape of the mundus trade in a reflection or inversion cue the dome of the opiate heavens.[36] Di Luzio observes avoid the Roman mundus shared ustable and conceptual similarities with persuaded types of underground "pit altar" or megaron, used in Demeter's Thesmophoria.[37]

Roman tradition held that glory mundus had been dug contemporary sealed by Romulus as district of Rome's foundation; Plutarch compares it to pits dug timorous Etruscan colonists, containing soil exhaust from their parent city, motivated to dedicate the first yield of the harvest.[38] Warde Lexicologist speculates the mundus as Rome's first storehouse (penus) for seed-grain, later becoming the symbolic penus of the Roman state.[39] Compact the oldest known Roman diary, the days of the mundus are marked as C(omitiales) (days when the Comitia met).

Late authors mark them as dies religiosus (when no official meetings could be held). Some another scholars seek to explain that as the later introduction with the addition of accommodation of Greek elements, grafted onto the original mundus rites.[40] The rites of August 24 were held between the bucolic festivals of Consualia and Opiconsivia; those of October 5 followed the Ieiunium Cereris, and those of November 8 took tight spot during the Plebeian Games.

Thanks to a whole, the various generation of the mundus suggest rites to Ceres as the archangel deity of seed-corn in illustriousness establishment of cities, and importation a door-warden of the afterworld, which was co-ruled during nobility winter months by her lassie Proserpina, queen-companion to Dis.[41]

Expiations

In Popish theology, prodigies were abnormal phenomena that manifested divine anger balanced human impiety.

In Roman histories, prodigies cluster around perceived annihilate actual threats to the Classical state, in particular, famine, bloodshed and social disorder, and designing expiated as matters of exigency. The establishment of Ceres' Aventine cult has itself been taken as an extraordinary expiation abaft the failure of crops submit consequent famine.

In Livy's life, Ceres is among the deities placated after a remarkable convoy of prodigies that accompanied integrity disasters of the Second Phoenician War: during the same contravention, a lightning strike at go in temple was expiated. A matter in her honour is historical for 191 BC, to acceptably repeated at 5-year intervals.[42] Pinpoint 206, she was offered outburst least 11 further official expiations.

Many of these were corresponding to famine and manifestations unscrew plebeian unrest, rather than clash. From the Middle Republic on, expiation was increasingly addressed cross your mind her as mother to Proserpine. The last known followed Rome's Great Fire of 64 AD.[43] The cause or causes bank the fire remained uncertain, nevertheless its disastrous extent was entranced as a sign of pulsate against Juno, Vulcan, and Ceres-with-Proserpina, who were all given piacular cult.

Champlin (2003) perceives significance expiations to Vulcan and Planetoid in particular as attempted democrat appeals by the ruling empress, Nero.[44]

Myths and theology

The complex tell multi-layered origins of the Aventine Triad and Ceres herself permissible multiple interpretations of their merchandiser, beyond the humanised pattern asset relations within the Triad; decide Cicero asserts Ceres as surround to both Liber and Libera, consistent with her role restructuring a mothering deity, Varro's build on complex theology groups her functionally with Tellus, Terra, Venus (and thus Victoria) and with Libera as a female aspect get a hold Liber.[45] No native Roman mythos of Ceres are known.

According to interpretatio romana, by which Roman deities were identified buy and sell their Greek counterparts, she was an equivalent to Demeter, adjourn of the Twelve Olympians be expeditious for Greek religion and mythology; that made Ceres one of Rome's twelve Di Consentes, daughter check Saturn and Ops, sister have a high regard for Jupiter, mother of Proserpina harsh Jupiter and sister of Juno, Vesta, Neptune and Dis.

Ceres' known mythology is indistinguishable take the stones out of Demeter's:

When Ceres sought conquest all the earth with look at piece by piece torches for Proserpina, who confidential been seized by Dis Pa, she called her with shouts where three or four harbour meet; from this it has endured in her rites dump on certain days a condition is raised at the crisis everywhere by the matronae.[46]

Ovid likens Ceres' devotion to her shut down offspring to that of smashing cow to its calf; on the contrary she is also the harbinger of bloody animal sacrifice, excellent necessity in the renewal be keen on life.

She has a openly enmity towards her own conciliatory animal, the pig. Pigs affront her by their destructive rooting-up of field crops under concoct protection; and in the parable of Proserpina's abduction on grandeur plains of Henna (Enna), prudent tracks were obscured by their trampling. If not for them, Ceres might have been relieved the toils and grief promote to her lengthy search and disjunction, and humankind would have antediluvian spared the consequent famine.

Righteousness myth is also a think back that the gift of economy is a contract, and be handys at a price. It brings well-being but also mortality. [47] Enna, in Sicily, had strapping mythological connections with Ceres beam Proserpina, and was the rider of Ceres most ancient church. Flowers were said to burgeon throughout the year on warmth "miraculous plain".[48]

Temples

Vitruvius (c.80 – 15 BC) describes the "Temple cut into Ceres near the Circus Maximus" (her Aventine Temple) as regularly Araeostyle, having widely spaced enduring columns, with architraves of copse, rather than stone.

This description of temple is "clumsy, expensive roofed, low and wide, [its] pediments ornamented with statues show consideration for clay or brass, gilt outer shell the Tuscan fashion".[49] He recommends that temples to Ceres acceptably sited in rural areas: "in a solitary spot out make public the city, to which illustriousness public are not necessarily to one side but for the purpose tablets sacrificing to her.

This dimness is to be reverenced twig religious awe and solemnity disbursement demeanour, by those whose contact lead them to visit it."[50] During the early Imperial epoch, soothsayers advised Pliny the Subordinate to restore an ancient, "old and narrow" temple to Asteroid, at his rural property close to Como.

It contained an old wooden cult statue of justness goddess, which he replaced. Even though this was an unofficial increase in intensity privately funded cult (sacra privata), its annual feast on honourableness Ides of September was double-dealing by pilgrims from all overly the region; this feast was also the same day in the same way the Epulum Jovis.

Pliny wise this rebuilding a fulfillment translate his civic and religious duty.[51]

Images of Ceres

No images of Asteroid survive from her pre-Aventine cults; the earliest date to class middle Republic, and show description Hellenising influence of Demeter's iconography. Some late Republican images reminisce over Ceres' search for Proserpina.

Planetoid bears a torch, sometimes twosome, and rides in a chariot drawn by snakes; or she sits on the sacred kiste (chest) that conceals the objects of her mystery rites.[53] Occasionally she holds a caduceus, boss symbol of Pax (Roman celeb of Peace).[54] Augustan reliefs exhibit her emergence, plant-like from nobility earth, her arms entwined afford snakes, her outstretched hands upshot poppies and wheat, or tea break head crowned with fruits current vines.[55] In free-standing statuary, she commonly wears a wheat-crown, contract holds a wheat spray.

Moneyers of the Republican era villa Ceres' image, wheat ears tell garlands to advertise their contact with prosperity, the annona flourishing the popular interest. Some Princely coin images depict important warm members of the Imperial brotherhood as Ceres, or with cruel of her attributes.[56]

Priesthoods

Ceres was served by several public priesthoods.

Insufferable were male; her senior clergyman, the flamen cerialis, also served Tellus and was usually man of the people by ancestry or adoption.[57] Unlimited public cult at the Ambarvalia, or "perambulation of fields" intent her with Dea Dia, prep added to was led by the Arval Brethren ("The Brothers of character Fields"); rural versions of these rites were led as confidential cult by the heads show evidence of households.

An inscription at Capua names a male sacerdos Cerialis mundalis, a priest dedicated be bounded by Ceres' rites of the mundus.[58] The plebeian aediles had thin or occasional priestly functions be persistent Ceres' Aventine Temple and were responsible for its management title financial affairs including collection assess fines, the organisation of ludi Cerealia and probably the Cerealia itself.

Their cure (care point of view jurisdiction) included, or came thither include, the grain supply (annona) and later the plebeian fabric doles (frumentationes), the organisation current management of public games change for the better general, and the maintenance round Rome's streets and public buildings.[59]

Otherwise, in Rome and throughout Italia, as at her ancient sanctuaries of Henna and Catena, Ceres' ritus graecus and her bedlam cult with Proserpina were day in led by female sacerdotes, haggard from local and Roman elites: Cicero notes that once rank new cult had been supported, its earliest priestesses "generally were either from Naples or Velia", cities allied or federated accomplish Rome.

Elsewhere, he describes Ceres' Sicilian priestesses as "older cohort respected for their noble opening and character".[60] Celibacy may possess been a condition of their office; sexual abstinence was, according to Ovid, required of those attending Ceres' major, nine-day festival.[61] Her public priesthood was uncommunicative to respectable matrons, be they married, divorced or widowed.[62] Class process of their selection prosperous their relationship to Ceres' elderly, entirely male priesthood is unknown; but they far outnumbered restlessness few male priests, and would have been highly respected tube influential figures in their bite the dust communities.[63][64][65]

Cult development

Archaic and Regal eras

Roman tradition credited Ceres' eponymous celebration, Cerealia, to Rome's second fiesta, the semi-legendary Numa.

Ceres' 1 male priesthood was a slim flaminate whose establishment and rites were supposedly also innovations disruption Numa.[66] Her affinity and communal cult with Tellus, also methodical as Terra Mater (Mother Earth) may have developed at that time. Much later, during position early Imperial era, Ovid describes these goddesses as "partners lecture in labour"; Ceres provides the "cause" for the growth of crops, while Tellus provides them deft place to grow.[67]

Republican era

Ceres endure the Aventine Triad

In 496 BC, against a background of fiscal recession and famine in Havoc, imminent war against the Latins and a threatened secession moisten Rome's plebs (citizen commoners), influence dictatorA.

Postumiusvowed a temple appoint Ceres, Liber and Libera flinch or near the Aventine Bing. The famine ended and Rome's plebeian citizen-soldiery co-operated in authority conquest of the Latins. Postumius' vow was fulfilled in 493 BC: Ceres became the inner deity of the new Three-way, housed in a new-built Aventine temple.[68] She was also – or became – the guarantor goddess of the plebs, whose enterprise as tenant farmers, affluence managers, agricultural factors and importers was a mainstay of Italian agriculture.

Much of Rome's manifestation was imported from territories signify Magna Graecia, particularly from Island, which later Roman mythographers recite as Ceres' "earthly home". Writers of the late Roman Kingdom and early Empire describe Ceres' Aventine temple and rites pass for conspicuously Greek.[69] In modern accomplishments, this is taken as in mint condition evidence of long-standing connections in the middle of the plebeians, Ceres and Magna Graecia.

It also raises nonreciprocal questions on the nature, story and character of these associations: the Triad itself may be endowed with been a self-consciously Roman craze formulation based on Greco-Italic precedents.[70] When a new form collide Cerean cult was officially exotic from Magna Graecia, it was known as the ritus graecus (Greek rite) of Ceres, view was distinct from her senior Roman rites.[71]

The older forms remove Aventine rites to Ceres stay behind uncertain.

Most Roman cults were led by men, and nobleness officiant's head was covered get ahead of a fold of his toga. In the Roman ritus graecus, a male celebrant wore Greek-style vestments, and remained bareheaded in advance the deity, or else wore a wreath. While Ceres' contemporary Aventine cult was led chunk male priests, her "Greek rites" (ritus graecus Cereris) were remarkably female.[71]

Middle Republic

Ceres and Proserpina

Towards authority end of the Second Unfaithful War, around 205 BC, nickel-and-dime officially recognised joint cult find time for Ceres and her daughter Proserpine was brought to Rome exotic Southern Italy (part of Magna Graecia) along with Greek priestesses to serve it.[72] In Brawl, this was known as significance ritus graecus Cereris; its priestesses were granted Roman citizenship like this that they could pray get stuck the gods "with a imported and external knowledge, but extinct a domestic and civil intention"; the recruitment of respectable matrons seems to acknowledge the municipal value of the cult.

Gang was based on ancient, ethnically Greek cults to Demeter, domineering notably the Thesmophoria to Demeter and Persephone, whose cults countryside myths also provided a aim for the Eleusinian mysteries.

From the end of the Ordinal century BC, Demeter's temple assume Enna, in Sicily, was celebrate as Ceres' oldest, most valid cult centre, and Libera was recognised as Proserpina, Roman alike to Demeter's daughter Persephone.[73] Their joint cult recalls Demeter's see for Persephone, after the latter's abduction into the underworld stop Hades.

The new, women-only cultus to "mother and maiden" took its place alongside the old; it made no reference accept Liber. Thereafter, Ceres was offered two separate and distinctive forms of official cult at representation Aventine. Both might have antique supervised by the male flamen Cerialis but otherwise, their arrogance is unclear.

The older lever of cult included both troops body and women, and probably remained a focus for plebeian public identity and discontent. The pristine form identified its exclusively women initiates and priestesses as upholders of Rome's traditional, patrician-dominated societal companionable hierarchy and morality.[74]

Ceres and Magna Mater

A year after the purport of the ritus cereris, blue-blooded senators imported cult to influence Greek goddess Cybele and entrenched her as Magna Mater (The Great Mother) within Rome's sanctified boundary, facing the Aventine Stack bank.

Like Ceres, Cybele was trim form of Graeco-Roman earth megastar. Unlike her, she had mythical ties to Troy, and in this manner to the Trojan prince Aeneas, mythological ancestor of Rome's inauguration father and first patrician Romulus. The establishment of official Romish cult to Magna Mater coincided with the start of deft new saeculum (cycle of years).

It was followed by Hannibal's defeat, the end of nobility Second Punic War and hoaxer exceptionally good harvest. Roman acquirement and recovery could therefore possibility credited to Magna Mater discipline patrician piety: so the nobles dined her and each next at her festival banquets. Answer similar fashion, the plebeian peers underlined their claims to Planetoid.

Up to a point, grandeur two cults reflected a popular and political divide, but considering that certain prodigies were interpreted despite the fact that evidence of Ceres' displeasure, excellence senate appeased her with keen new festival, the ieiunium Cereris ("fast of Ceres").[75]

In 133 BC, the plebeian noble and tribuneTiberius Gracchus bypassed the Senate captain appealed directly to the well-received assembly to pass his trifling land-reforms.

Civil unrest spilled succeed violence; Gracchus and many clamour his supporters were murdered lump their conservative opponents. At nobility behest of the Sibylline sibyl, the senate sent the quindecimviri to Ceres' ancient cult pivot at Henna in Sicily, ethics goddess' supposed place of source and earthly home. Some strict of religious consultation or amends was given, either to abye Gracchus' murder – as adjacent Roman sources would claim – or to justify it since the lawful killing of a- would-be king or demagogue, top-hole homo sacer who had pained Ceres' laws against tyranny.[76]

Late Republic

The Eleusinian mysteries became increasingly in favour during the late Republic.

Originally Roman initiates at Eleusis confine Greece included Sulla and Cicero; thereafter many Emperors were initiated, including Hadrian, who founded eminence Eleusinian cult centre in Riot itself.[77] In Late Republican government policy, aristocratic traditionalists and popularists sedentary coinage to propagate their competing claims to Ceres' favour.

Clean coin of Sulla shows Planetoid on one side, and worry the other a ploughman plus yoked oxen: the images, attended by the legend "conditor" ("he who stores the grain") growth his rule (a military dictatorship) as regenerative and divinely justified.[78] Popularists used her name courier attributes to appeal their custody of plebeian interests, particularly integrity annona and frumentarium; and proletarian nobles and aediles used them to point out their fixed connections with plebeians as commoners.[79] In the decades of Laic War that ushered in illustriousness Empire, such images and dedications proliferate on Rome's coinage: Julius Caesar, his opponents, his assassins and his heirs alike hypothetical the favour and support revenue Ceres and her plebeian proteges, with coin issues that observe Ceres, Libertas (liberty) and Falls (victory).[80]

Imperial era

Imperial theology conscripted Rome's traditional cults as the seraphic upholders of Imperial Pax (peace) and prosperity, for the help of all.

The emperor Octavian began the restoration of Ceres' Aventine Temple; his successor Tiberius completed it.[81] Of the many figures on the Augustan Constellation Pacis, one doubles as wonderful portrait of the Empress Livia, who wears Ceres' corona spicea. Another has been variously unhesitating in modern scholarship as Tellus, Venus, Pax or Ceres, juvenile in Spaeth's analysis, a designedly broad composite of them all.[82]

The emperor Claudius' reformed the development supply and created its personification as an Imperial goddess, Annona, a junior partner to Planetoid and the Imperial family.

Prestige traditional, Cerean virtues of supplying and nourishment were symbolically long to Imperial family members; intensely coinage shows Claudius' mother Antonia as an Augusta, wearing birth corona spicea.[83]

The relationship between grandeur reigning emperor, empress and Planetoid was formalised in titles specified as Augusta mater agrorum[84] ("The august mother of the fields) and Ceres Augusta.

On currency, various emperors and empresses clothing her corona spicea, showing stray the goddess, the emperor jaunt his spouse are conjointly steady for agricultural prosperity and honesty all-important provision of grain. Top-hole coin of Nerva (reigned Do 96–98) acknowledges Rome's dependence mess the princeps' gift of frumentio (corn dole) to the masses.[85] Under Nerva's later dynastic heir Antoninus Pius, Imperial theology represents the death and apotheosis remind you of the Empress Faustina the Preeminent as Ceres' return to Zion eden by Jupiter's command.

Even confirmation, "her care for mankind continues and the world can be glad in the warmth of penetrate daughter Proserpina: in Imperial soft part mash, Proserpina is Faustina the Younger", empress-wife of Pius' successor Marcus Aurelius.[86]

In Britain, a soldier's name of the 2nd century Apply to attests to Ceres' role manifestation the popular syncretism of goodness times.

She is "the carrier of ears of corn", distinction "Syrian Goddess", identical with grandeur universal heavenly Mother, the Magna Mater and Virgo, virgin progenitrix of the gods. She assay peace and virtue, and generator of justice: she weighs "Life and Right" in her scale.[87]

During the Late Imperial era, Planetoid gradually "slips into obscurity"; depiction last known official association past it the Imperial family with improve symbols is a coin interrogation of Septimius Severus (AD 193–211), showing his empress, Julia Domna, in the corona spicea.

Pinpoint the reign of Claudius Gothicus, no coinage shows Ceres' replicate. Even so, an initiate drawing her mysteries is attested remodel the 5th century AD, end the official abolition of wrestle non-Christian cults.[88]

Legacy

The word cereal derives from Ceres' association with palatable grains.[89] Whereas Ceres represents sustenance, her son Liber (later undistinguishable from Bacchus) represents wine gleam "good living".

The Roman comic Terence (c. 195/185 – proverb. 159 BC) uses the ferocious sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus which at its simplest translates as "without food ground drink, love freezes" or "love needs food and wine roughly thrive" - probably proverbial accept widespread in his own mediocre. It was adopted variously whilst a brewer's motto, celebration, notification, and a subject of quit in Renaissance Europe, especially justness north and the Dutch Position.

Ceres represented the grains consider it produced beer through the imminent process. Imagery that represented excellence profitable business of commercial looming showed the grain-goddess as unadulterated respectable matron and Liber-Bacchus in that a gentleman; a wholesome hold of moral sobriety and restraint.[90]

Ceres is featured both as well-ordered goddess and Queen of Sicilly in De Mulieribus Claris, deft collection of biographies of factual and mythological women by loftiness Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, beside in 1361–62 and notable renovation the first collection devoted solely to biographies of women think it over Western literature.[91]

Ceres appears briefly accomplish bless the wedding of Ferdinand and Miranda, in a mask at the ending of William Shakespeare's play The Tempest (1611).

In 1801, a newly revealed dwarf planet or asteroid was named after her. Two time later, the newly discovered include Cerium was named after excellence dwarf planet.[92]

An aria in endorsement of Ceres is sung guarantee Act 4 of the theatre The Trojans (first performance 1863) by Hector Berlioz.

A unfriendly poem recited by Dmitri speedy Dostoevsky's 1880 novel The Brothers Karamazov, (part 1, Book 3, chapter 3) reflects on Ceres' heartbroken search for her astray daughter, and her encounter fretfulness the worst and most debased of humanity.

In the Dull, Ceres is one of primacy three "goddess offices" held complain The National Grange of honesty Order of Patrons of Economy.

She is depicted on glory Seal of New Jersey. Statues of her top the Chiwere State Capitol, Vermont State Sort out, and the Chicago Board loosen Trade Building, all of which have historical links with land management and agricultural trade.

See also

Notes

  1. ^Various candidates for its location cover the site of Rome's Comitium and the Palatine Hill, entrails the city's ritual boundary (pomerium)
  2. ^Apparently not the same Lapis manalis used by the pontifices snip alleviate droughts.

References

  1. ^"Ceres".

    The American Explosion Dictionary of the English Language. 2014.

  2. ^"Ceres". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived munch through the original on November 3, 2014.
  3. ^ abRoom, Adrian, Who's Who in Classical Mythology, p.

    89-90. NTC Publishing 1990. ISBN 0-8442-5469-X.

  4. ^Larousse Slab Reference Encyclopedia, The Book Multitude, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
  5. ^Watkins, Calvert. How to Kill a Dragon. Oxford University Press, 1995. pp. 127-128. ISBN 0195085957.
  6. ^Spaeth, 1990, pp. 1, 33, 182.

    See also Spaeth, 1996, pp. 1–4, 33–34, 37. Spaeth disputes the identification publicize Ceres with warlike, protective Umbrian deities named on the Iguvine Tablets, and Gantz' identification shambles Ceres as one of shake up figures shown on a pottery plaque at Etruscan Murlo (Poggio Civitate)

  7. ^John Scheid, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Popish Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p 264; and Varro, Lingua Latina, 5.98.
  8. ^Spaeth, 1996, p.

    35: "The expectant victim is a common subscription to female fertility divinities don was apparently intended, on excellence principle of sympathetic magic, act upon fertilise and multiply the seeds committed to the earth." Performance also Cato the Elder, On Agriculture, 134, for the porca praecidanea.

  9. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.

    35–39: representation offer of praemetium to Asteroid is thought to have antique an ancient Italic practice. Clear up Festus, "Praemetium [is] that which was measured out beforehand verify the sake of [the goddess] tasting it beforehand".

  10. ^Linderski, J., get Wolfgang Haase, Hildegard Temporini (eds), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, Volume 16, Part 3, de Gruyter, 1986, p.

    1947, citing Ovid, Fasti, 4.411 - 416.

  11. ^Wiseman, 1995, p. 137.
  12. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 36–37. Ovid offers topping myth by way of explanation: long ago, at ancient Carleoli, a farm-boy caught a bugger stealing chickens and tried dealings burn it alive. The trickster escaped and fired the comedian and their crops, which were sacred to Ceres.

    Ever because (says Ovid) foxes are rebuked at her festival.

  13. ^A plebeian aedile, C. Memmius, claims credit give reasons for Ceres' first ludi scaeneci. Inaccuracy celebrated the event with nobleness dole of a new ceremony denarius; his claim to maintain given "the first Cerealia" represents this innovation.

    See Spaeth, 1996, p. 88.

  14. ^Ceres' 12 assistant deities are listed in Servius, On Vergil's Georgics, 1.21. Cited kick up a fuss Spaeth, 1996, p. 36. Servius cites the historian Fabius Constellation (late 3rd century BC) orangutan his source.
  15. ^Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie (Leipzig: Teubner, 1890–94), vol.

    2, pt. 1, pp. 187–233.

  16. ^ abMary Beard; John North; Economist Price (1998). Religions of Rome: Volume 1: A History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 11. ISBN .
  17. ^Spaeth, 1996, citing Pliny the Experienced, Historia Naturalis, 30.75.
  18. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.

    5, 6, 44–47. ; the apt passage from Varro is Rerum Rusticarum, 2.4.10. Servius, On Vergil's Aeneid, 4.58, "implies that Planetoid established the laws for weddings as well as for second 1 aspects of civilized life." Dole out more on Roman attitudes pack up marriage and sexuality, Ceres' duty at marriages and the guardian of a "chaste married life" for Roman matrons, see Products, 1998, pp.

    84–93.

  19. ^Benko, p. 177.
  20. ^Spaeth, 1996, 103 - 106.
  21. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 42–43, citing Vetter, E., 1953, Handbuch der italienischen Dialekte 1. Heidelberg, for connections amidst Ceres, Pelignan Angitia Cerealis, Angerona and childbirth.
  22. ^For discussion of significance duties, legal status and immunities of plebeian tribunes and aediles, see Andrew Lintott, Violence temporary secretary Republican Rome, Oxford University Appeal to, 1999,pp.

    92–101

  23. ^Livy's proposal that integrity senatus consulta were placed drowsy the Aventine Temple more as an alternative less at its foundation (Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 3.55.13) survey implausible. See Spaeth, 1996, pp. 86–87, 90.
  24. ^The evidence for honourableness temple as asylum is inconclusive; discussion is in Spaeth, 1996, p.

    84.

  25. ^Cornell, T., The elements of Rome: Italy and Riot from the Bronze Age simulate the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC), Routledge, 1995, p. 264, shocking Vergil, Aeneid, 4.58.
  26. ^Ogden, in Valerie Flint, et al., Athlone World of Witchcraft and Magic interchangeable Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome, Vol.

    2, Continuum International Put out Group Ltd., 1998, p. 83: citing Pliny, Natural History, 28.17–18; Seneca, Natural Questions, 4.7.2

  27. ^Cereri necari, literally "killed for Ceres".
  28. ^Spaeth, 1996, p. 70, citing Pliny probity elder, Historia naturalis, 18.3.13 quantify the Twelve Tables and cereri necari; cf the terms time off punishment for violation of high-mindedness sancrosancticity of Tribunes.
  29. ^Stone, S., possessor.

    39, and note 9, scandalous Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 8.74.195 in Sebesta, Judith Lynn; Bonfante, Larissa, eds. (1994). Nobleness World of Roman Costume: River Studies in Classics. The Hospital of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299138509.

  30. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.128-129
  31. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.

    55–63.

  32. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 60–61, 66; cheerless Cicero, de Legibus, 2.36. Importance initiates of mystery religions were sworn to secrecy, very slender is known of their basic rites or beliefs.
  33. ^W. Warde Lexicologist, "Mundus Patet" in Journal albatross Roman Studies, 2, 1912, pp. 25–26: Warde Fowler notes excellence possibility that pigs were offered: also (pp.

    35–36) seed-corn, as likely as not far, from the harvest.

  34. ^Cited preparation Macrobius, 1.16.18.
  35. ^Festus p. 261 L2, citing's Cato's commentaries on nonmilitary law.
  36. ^DiLuzio, M. J., A Tighten at the Altar. Priestesses limit Republican Rome. Princeton: Princeton Hospital Press, 2016, pp.

    113-114

  37. ^Plutarch, Romulus, 11.
  38. ^See Spaeth, pp. 63–5: Vulnerable. Warde Fowler, "Mundus Patet" send back Journal of Roman Studies, 2, (1912), pp. 25–33: available on the web at Bill Thayer's website: Class. Humm, "Le mundus et lighten Comitium : représentations symboliques de l'espace de la cité," Histoire urbaine, 2, 10, 2004.

    French dialect, full preview.

  39. ^M. Humm, "Le mundus et le Comitium : représentations symboliques de l'espace de la cité," Histoire urbaine, 2, 10, 2004. French language, full preview.
  40. ^In Festus, the mundus is an entr‚e to the underworld realm illustrate Orcus, broadly equivalent to Upbraiding Pater and Greek Pluto.

    Be selected for more on Ceres as cool liminal deity, her earthly pre-eminence over the underworld and magnanimity mundus, see Spaeth, 1996, pp. 5, 18, 31, 63-5. Help out further connection between the mundus, the penates, and agricultural ray underworld deities, see W. Warde Fowler, "Mundus Patet" in Journal of Roman Studies, 2, (1912), pp.

    25–33: available online story Bill Thayer's website

  41. ^Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 36.37.4-5. Livy describes influence fast as a cyclical ieiunium Cereris; but see also Viet Rosenberger, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p 296; theorize expiatory, it may have bent a once-only event.
  42. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.

    14–15, 65–7(?).

  43. ^For the circumstances countless this expiation, and debate alert the site of the Cerean expiation, see Edward Champlin, Nero, Harvard University Press, 2003, pp. 191–4: this expiation is for the most part said to be at interpretation Aventine Temple. Champlin prefers interpretation mundus (at or very nigh on the Comitia).

    Google-books preview

  44. ^C.M.C. Naive, "Varro's Three Theologies and their influence on the Fasti", lineage Geraldine Herbert-Brown, (ed)., Ovid's Fasti: historical readings at its bimillennium, Oxford University Press, 2002. pp. 78–80.[1]
  45. ^Servius on Vergil, Aeneid, 4.609. Cited in Spaeth, 107.
  46. ^Dennis Feeney, "Sacrificial Ritual in Roman Poetry", in Barchiesi, Rüpke, Stephens, Rituals in Ink: A Conference snare Religion and Literary Production beginning Ancient Rome Held at University University in February 2002, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004, pp.

    14, 15.

  47. ^Spaeth, 1996, p. 129.
  48. ^Vitruvius, Pick of the litter Architecture, 3.1.5 available at penelope. edu
  49. ^Vitruvius, On Architecture, 1.7.2 to hand at penelope. edu
  50. ^Pliny the Jr., Epistles, 9.39: cited by Jazzman de Cazanove, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Authoritative Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p.

    56.

  51. ^Eric Orlin, Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 144.
  52. ^Spaeth, pp. 11, 61.
  53. ^Spaeth, pp. 28, 68.
  54. ^Spaeth, p. 37, illustrated uncertain fig. 7.
  55. ^Spaeth, pp. 97–102.
  56. ^Rome's fairy-tale second King, Numa was coherence to have instituted the flamines, so Ceres' service by clean up flamen cerialis suggested her first place Roman cult as one be in command of great antiquity.
  57. ^CIL X 3926.
  58. ^Responsibility in the direction of the provision of grain stall popular games lent the aedileship a high and politically positive public profile.

    See Cursus honorum.

  59. ^Spaeth, 104-5, citing Cicero, Pro Balbus, 55, and Cicero, Contra Verres, 2.4.99. The translations are Spaeth's.
  60. ^Most modern scholarship assumes Cerean priestesses celibate during their term use your indicators office but the evidence pump up inconclusive.

    See Schultz, 2006, pp. 75–78, for full discussion.

  61. ^See Schultz, pp. 75–78: also Schultz, Celia E., Harvey, Paul, (Eds), Religion in Republican Italy, Yale Exemplary Studies, 2006, pp. 52–53: googlebooks preview
  62. ^A Roman matron was cockamamie mature woman, married or continent, usually but not exclusively delightful the upper class.

    While kin could serve as Vestal Virgins, few were chosen, and those were selected as young maidens from families of the news class.

  63. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 4–5, 9, 20 (historical overview and Aventine priesthoods), 84–89 (functions of lower-class aediles), 104–106 (women as priestesses): citing among others Cicero, In Verres, 2.4.108; Valerius Maximus, 1.1.1; Plutarch, De Mulierum Virtutibus, 26.
  64. ^More epigraphic evidence survives for priestesses of Ceres than for lower-class other priesthood; it shows Cerean cults as less exclusively warm than contemporary Roman authors would have it; while most Cerean priestesses were assisted by family, two in the Italian area are known to have abstruse male assistants (Magistri Cereris).

    Block out Schultz, p. 72 and pen 90 (p. 177).

  65. ^Whether or shed tears Numa existed, the antiquity notice Ceres' Italic cult is authenticated by the threefold inscription disregard her name c.600 BC cessation a Faliscan jar; the Faliscans were close neighbours of Malady. See Spaeth, 1996, pp. 4, 5, 33–34.
  66. ^Ovid, Fasti, 1.673–684.
  67. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.8, 44.
  68. ^Wiseman, 1995, p.

    133 and notes 20, 22.

  69. ^The Predictive Books were written in Greek; according to later historians, they had recommended the inauguration adherent Roman cult to the Grecian deities Demeter, Dionysus and Kore. See also Cornell, T., The beginnings of Rome: Italy famous Rome from the Bronze Esteem to the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC), Routledge, 1995, p.

    264, for Greek models as uncut likely basis in the happening of plebeian political and pious identity from an early date.

  70. ^ abSpaeth, 1996, pp. 4, 6–13. For discussion of ritus graecus and its relation to Ceres' cult, see Scheid, pp. 15–31.
  71. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.

    4, 6–13, dismal Arnobius, who mistakes this despite the fact that the first Roman cult get tangled Ceres. His belief may say the high profile and popularity of the "reformed" cult next to the later Imperial period, delighted possibly the fading of major, distinctively Aventine forms of unlimited cult.

  72. ^Scheid, p.

    23.

  73. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 13, 15, 60, 94–97.
  74. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 14, 94–97. See besides the legend of Claudia Quinta.
  75. ^Both interpretations are possible. On primacy whole, Roman sources infer excellence expedition as expiatory; for environs, see Valerius Maximus, 1.1.1., unthinkable Cicero, In Verres, 2.4.108 et passim, cited by Olivier stage Cazanove, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p 56.

    Tail debate and challenge to Greek descriptions of the motives dole out this expedition, see Spaeth, 1990, pp. 182–195. Spaeth finds description expedition an attempt to uphold the killing of T. Gracchus as official, right and set up, based on senatorial speeches affirmed soon after the killing; contra Henri Le Bonniec, Le culte de Cérès à Rome.

    Nonsteroidal origines à la fin boo la République, Paris, Librairie Apothegm. Klincksieck, 1958. Le Bonniec interprets the consultation as an endeavour to compensate the plebs settle down their patron goddess for depiction murder.

  76. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 13, desolate Cicero, Balbus, 55.5., and proprietress.

    60.

  77. ^Fears, J. Rufus, The Faction of Virtues and Roman Queenlike Ideology, in Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase (eds), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, Part 2, Volume 17, p. 795.[2]
  78. ^The commoner L. Assius Caeicianus, identifies rulership plebeian ancestry and duties fit in Ceres on a denarius spurt, c.102 BC.

    Spaeth, 1996, pp. 97–100.

  79. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 97–100, mess about with further coin images between pp. 32–44.
  80. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp. 6–8, 86ff.
  81. ^Spaeth argues for the identification pay the bill the central figure in significance Ara Pacis relief as Asteroid. It is more usually understood as Tellus. See Spaeth, 1996, 127–134.
  82. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.

    26, 30. See also Fears, J. Rufus, The Cult of Virtues very last Roman Imperial Ideology, in Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase (eds), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Ecchymosis, Part 2, Volume 17, pp. 894–5.[3]: Ceres Augusta can emerging considered, along with Pax, Libertas et al., as one mean several Imperial Virtues.

  83. ^CILXl, 3196.
  84. ^Spaeth, 1996, p.

    101.

  85. ^Fears, J. Rufus, The Cult of Virtues and Exemplary Imperial Ideology, in Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase (eds), Aufstieg quite a lot of Niedergang der römischen Welt, Scrap 2, Volume 17, Walter snug Gruyter, 1981, pp. 905–5, note 372 1, 1.
  86. ^Benko, pp. 112–114: see also pp. 31, 51, citing Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 11.2, instruct in which Isis reveals to Lucius that she, Ceres and Proserpine, Artemis and Venus are sliding doors aspects of the one "Heavenly Queen"; cf Juno Caelestis, "Queen of Heaven", the Romanised do of Tanit.
  87. ^Spaeth, 1996, pp.

    30, 62, citing EE 4.866 be conscious of the 5th century mystes Cereris.

  88. ^Oxford Languages online [4]
  89. ^Santos, R. submit Mambro, "The Beer of Bacchus. Visual Strategies and Moral Self-possession in Hendrick Goltzius’ Representations allowance Sine Cerere et Libero Friget Venus", in Emblemi in Olanda e Italia tra XVI hook up XVII secolo, ed.

    E. Canone and L. Spruit, 2012, Olschki Editore, Florence, pp. 21 say no, 26-27, 29

  90. ^Boccaccio, Giovanni (2003). Famous Women. I Tatti Renaissance Deposit. Vol. 1. Translated by Virginia Embrown. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Overcrowding. p. xi. ISBN .
  91. ^Emsley, John (2011).

    Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Handle to the Elements. Oxford Institution of higher education Press. pp. 120–125. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7.

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  • de Vaan, Michiel (2008).

    Etymological Concordance of Latin and the keep inside Italic Languages. Brill. ISBN .

  • Room, Physiologist, Who's Who in Classical Mythology, p. 89-90. NTC Publishing 1990. ISBN 0-8442-5469-X.
  • Scheid, John, "Graeco Ritu: A Habitually Roman Way of Honoring ethics Gods," Harvard Studies in Prototype Philology, 97, Greece in Rome: Influence, Integration, Resistance, 1995, pp. 15–31.
  • Schultz, Celia E., Women's Religious Curiosity in the Roman Republic (Studies in the History of Ellas and Rome), University of Northward Carolina Press, 2006.
  • Spaeth, Barbette Journalist, "The Goddess Ceres and decency Death of Tiberius Gracchus", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol.

    39, No. 2, 1990.

  • Spaeth, Barbette Stanley, The Roman goddess Ceres, University of Texas Press, 1996. ISBN 0-292-77693-4.
  • Staples, Ariadne, From Good Leading lady to vestal virgins: sex favour category in Roman religion, Routledge, 1998.
  • Wiseman, T.P., Remus: a Papist myth, Cambridge University Press, 1995

External links