Alexandra kollontai biography

Kollontai, Alexandra (1872–1952)

Russian revolutionary sit feminist who was the greatest woman to be a 1 of the Bolshevik Central Cabinet and the Council of People's Commissars as well as say publicly world's first female ambassador. Term variations: Aleksandra Kollontay; (nickname) Shura.

Pronunciation: KOLL-lon-TIE. Born Alexandra do an impression of Aleksandra Mikhailovna Domontovich in Pick. Petersburg, Russia, on March 19, 1872; died in Moscow party March 9, 1952; daughter accomplish Mikhail Domontovich (a cavalry officer) and Aleksandra Masalina (daughter eliminate a Finnish lumber merchant, she became an entrepreneur selling farm products); tutored at home, beseeching to certificate, 1888; auditor, Order of the day of Zurich, 1898–99; married Vladimir Kollontai, in 1893 (divorced); connubial Pavel Dybenko, in 1918; children: (first marriage) Mikhail.

Did charitable talented educational work in St.

Siege (1895–98); joined Russian Social Representative Labor Party (1899), associated sound out the Bolshevik faction (after 1915); wrote and lectured on Collectivism and social issues (1900–05); promoted Marxist organization of Russian plant women (1906–08); fled abroad (December 1908), where she served whilst Russian representative to the Universal Women's Secretariat (1910–15), lectured rag the Bologna Party School (1910–11), and wrote extensively on issues relating to maternity, sexuality standing pacifism; returned to Russia (March 1917), elected to the Managing director Committee of the Petrograd Council and to the Central Panel of the Bolshevik Party, add-on arrested (July 1917); served gorilla commissar of Social Welfare (1917–18); was a member of Residue Communist opposition (1918) and Workers' Opposition (1921–22); served as president, Women's Section (Zhenotdel) of leadership Central Committee of the Slavic Communist Party (1920–22); performed foxy work in Norway (1922–25, minister 1927–30), Mexico (ambassador 1926–27) leading Sweden (ambassador 1930–45).

Publications:

over 230 publication and journal articles many tablets which have been reproduced score A.M.

Kollontai, Izbrannye stat'i uproarious rechi (Collected Articles and Speeches, Moscow, 1972), or in Elite Writings of Alexandra Kollontai (edited by Alix Holt, Westport, 1977). Also wrote 30 pamphlets, novellas and books among the restore important being: Zhizn' finliandskikh rabochikh (The Life of Finnish Lecturers, St.

Petersburg, 1903); Sotsial'nye osnovy zhenskogo voprosa (The Social Bases of the Woman Question, St. Petersburg, 1909); Obshchestvo i materinstvo (Society and Maternity, Petrograd, 1916); Komu nuzhna voina?(Who Needs War?, Bern, 1916); Novaia moral' uproarious rabochii klass (The New High-mindedness and the Working Class, Moscow, 1918); Sem'ia i kommunisticheskoe gosudarstvo (The Family and the Politico State, Moscow, 1918); Rabochaia oppozitsiia (The Workers' Opposition, Moscow, 1921).

On November 16, 1918, Alexandra Kollontai stood at the podium gazing out over more than 1,000 delegates representing female factory personnel, peasant women, and Communist Challenging activists who had come put on the back burner across Soviet Russia to wait on or upon the Congress of Working Body of men.

As co-organizer, she had foretold a third of that delivery. Her large and colorful introduction, many wearing red kerchiefs topmost some with children in carry, was in marked contrast run into the dispirited delegation of 45 women workers she had stress at the First Congress try to be like Russian Women only ten grow older earlier. In 1908, the spear leadership of the party esoteric dragged its feet at unexcitable sending a workers' delegation; instantly V.I.

Lenin himself spoke decay the 1918 Congress. None admonishment Kollontai's resolutions had come hold on to a vote on the hitherto occasion; now the economic post political interests of working battalion received overwhelming support. In 1907 and 1908, the party challenging turned down her demands focus it set up a women's bureau to coordinate work mid women; in 1919, in crackdown measure as a result unbutton the recent congress, Zhenotdel foregoing the Women's Section of primacy Central Committee came into glare, and a year later Kollontai became its second director.

Time she had earlier been grandeur first woman named to nobleness Bolshevik Central Committee and say publicly first female member of honourableness Council of People's Commissars, that new position probably pleased recede the most, it best desirable her talents, and it offered her the greatest opportunity get on the right side of affect the lives of Council women.

We, the older generation, outspoken not yet understand, as heavyhanded men do and as minor women are learning today, put off work and the longing famine love can be harmoniously banded together so that work remains although the main goal of existence.

—Alexandra Kollontai

Alexandra Kollontai had been unmixed rebel throughout her life.

Spontaneous the 1890s, she had rebelled against her family, her final husband, and her own patrician class. After the 1917 Mutiny, she rebelled against Lenin break off peace with Germany in 1918, and then against her company when she joined the Workers' Opposition in 1921. This solve cost her her job owing to head of Zhenotdel and send her into diplomatic exile.

Spell she eventually became the world's first female ambassador, she continuing to rebel against society's code of behaviour. Following her death in 1952, it was finally recognized wander Alexandra Kollontai, through her authentic and writings, had also antique in the forefront of Europe's sexual revolution.

Kollontai, like many be more or less the women who subsequently husbandly the Russian revolutionary movement, was raised in circumstances of resources and privilege.

"My childhood was a happy one," she posterior wrote in her Autobiography. "I was the youngest, the extremity spoiled, and the most sensitive member of the family." Eliminate father Mikhail Domontovich, who was to become a general trim the Imperial Russian Army, was descended from an ancient, land-owning Ukrainian family. At the throw a spanner in the works of Kollontai's birth on Walk 19, 1872, he was nickelanddime instructor at the cavalry academy in St.

Petersburg. His heartless, as befitted his position breach society, was comfortable and well-staffed with servants. The upbringing cataclysm Shura, as Alexandra was systematic to her family, was remarkably left in the hands shop an English nanny. Her make somebody be quiet Aleksandra Masalina was from tidy mixed marriage of a Suomi peasant turned timber merchant advocate a Russian noblewoman.

Her lineage estate in Finland provided iron out idyllic place for Shura kind-hearted spend many of her young summers.

Kollontai's parents were in haunt ways unconventional in their lives and their thinking, and that in turn helped shape rectitude subsequent development of their chick. Because of the objections spick and span Masalina's father, their initial wooing was terminated, and she was forced to marry an inventor named Mravinskii.

Ten years reprove three children later, and masses the death of the venerable Masalin, Domontovich reappeared on say publicly scene and convinced her surrender seek a divorce. Legal ratification such as this were trying for women in 19th-century Empire. Before the divorce was legally binding, Shura was born out allude to wedlock.

Her parents defied decency conventions of the aristocracy adjust other ways as well. Domontovich, who had been interested necessitate radical causes in his young days adolescent, was a widely read solitary and surprisingly liberal for peter out army general. He was fastidious firm believer in a organic monarchy in a country turn constitutions were considered by various of his class to titter revolutionary.

When he suggested defer Bulgaria, where he was stationed in 1878, be given a-one liberal constitution, he was serial home in disgrace. Kollontai reverend her father and later certain that "if ever a male had an influence on ill at ease mind and development, it was my father." Her strong-willed apathy was equally influential, though scream as appreciated by her now and then rebellious daughter.

Following the temporality of her father, Masalina challenging taken over his business interests in Finland and developed uncluttered flourishing enterprise selling dairy commodities in St. Petersburg. Such sovereignty was unusual for upper-class Land women of her time. To some extent or degre more conventional were her devoted activities among the less well-off in Russia's capital.

Aleksandra Masalina neat that her daughter should realize a good education and properly self-reliant.

"I was never drive to school," Kollontai recalled, "because my parents lived in efficient constant state of anxiety selflessness my health and they could not endure the thought delay I, like all the strike children, should spend two noontime daily far from home. Discomfited mother probably also had undiluted certain horror of the open-handed influences with which I puissance come into contact." With birth aid of home tutors, she read voraciously.

She learned stop by speak French with her native and two halfsisters, English steadfast her nanny, Finnish with peasants on her mother's estate, leading German with one of troop instructors. Her mother was disappointing successful in developing her power in the areas of punishment, art, and dancing. Nevertheless, Kollontai passed her examinations in 1888 and at the age point toward 16 received a certificate which would have allowed her with respect to earn a living as smart teacher.

The next decade was sole of revolt and attempts riches personal liberation for Shura.

Probity first crisis came with equal finish determination to marry her cousin-german, Vladimir Kollontai. Her parents different the match, since Vladimir, trace engineering student at St. Petersburg's military academy, did not division her intellectual interests and difficult to understand few financial resources. Shura was forbidden to see him contemporary sent on an extended journey of Western Europe.

In what she later admitted was orderly battle of wills with accompaniment parents, she won out. Topping year after her marriage tote up Vladimir in 1893, a odd thing, Mikhail or Misha, was inherited. While she had escaped blue blood the gentry confines of the parental bring in and her mother's control, "the happy life of housewife explode spouse" became a "cage" which limited her pursuit of novel interests and of a complicate fulfilling career.

In part because appeal to the role models of team up parents and her own free education, Kollontai had by devastate 20 developed a social awareness, an awareness of social alight economic problems which the cruel Russian state refused to allegation.

This awakening was reinforced wishy-washy her reading of populist tolerate Marxist literature, which was addition vogue among the young highbrows of the 1890s, and gross her charitable and educational office among the poor of Mend. Petersburg. Vladimir, however, did fret share these concerns; he abstruse little interest in the conversations of her new radical acquaintances, and he could not scope her desire for meaningful run away with outside of marriage and kinship.

Frustrated by these constraints, Kollontai rebelled once again—this time refuse to comply her husband. In 1898, she took her four-year-old son do her parents, convinced her holy man to give her a modest

monthly allowance, and left for rendering University of Zurich where she systematically studied the classics sunup European Marxism.

A year subsequent, after returning to St. Besieging, she made the break conform to her past complete. Retrieving Misha from his grandparents, she counterfeit into a small apartment take, as a single parent, began a new career as orderly writer. Kollontai rebelled yet fiddle with in 1899 by joining rank illegal and revolutionary Russian Community Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP).

Now doing so, she turned protected back decisively on the agreed life of an upper-class Slavic woman; she rejected the bureaucratic predilections of her parents title denied the efficacy of laid back own earlier charitable activities.

It was not unusual for women a variety of Kollontai's background to join dignity RSDLP.

Others had been fascinated by Marx's scientific and insurgent solutions to society's problems paramount by the sense of responsibility and sacrifice which belonging deceive an illegal party provided. Specified women accordingly took over assorted of the secretarial and directorial positions in the underground. Kollontai wanted more than this.

She had undertaken her studies outward show Zurich because she wanted put a stop to be taken seriously as organized theorist by her male colleagues in the party and as she wanted to write deprive an informed Marxist perspective. That determination, shown early in quash revolutionary career, set her broken up from almost all of connection female counterparts and helps single out for punishment explain the unique and make a difference role she was to chapter in the RSDLP.

Her first proposal after returning to St.

Campaign was to begin a photographic study of the Finnish pruning. Between 1900 and 1903, she published ten articles in Red newspapers or journals on position subject as well as simple major statistical study entitled The Life of Finnish Workers which, wrote Barbara Clements , "established her intellectual credentials within representation Social Democratic movement." She besides began to hone her faculty as a public speaker famous agitator, another area where hardly Russian women excelled, by addressing working-class audiences.

On January 9, she witnessed the beginning learn the 1905 Revolution when she participated in a march withstand the tsar's residence at interpretation Winter Palace which ended in hell with the troops opening fanaticism on the marchers. Kollontai survived "Bloody Sunday" and spent description rest of the revolutionary vintage raising money for the social event among her wealthy friends esoteric coordinating activities with the Suomi Social Democrats.

Prior to this period, Russian Marxists had ignored position special concerns of Russian second best women who were seen purely as the most backward fundamental of the proletariat, facing depiction same problems as male organization.

As a result of that disinterest, the appeals of non-Marxist bourgeois feminists started to come on a receptive audience among utilizable women who made up bordering on a third of the experience force. Kollontai, who had turn on the waterworks shown much interest in goodness "woman question" before 1905, stiff the feminist threat and afoot to speak out against alliances with bourgeois women to appropriate such transitory gains as greatness right to vote.

She besides set up, in 1907, fastidious Mutual Aid Society for Method Women in St. Petersburg, hoop women could read and understand lectures on subjects of club to them, and organized a-ok delegation of 45 women organization to attend the First Assembly of Russian Women called through the bourgeois feminists in Dec 1908.

To prepare the accusation and to undermine the theory of the middle-class feminists, Kollontai wrote The Social Bases celebrate the Woman Question—the first vital study of women's issues close to a Russian Marxist. In overflow, she suggested that not one should the capitalist system happen to overthrown but the family strike had to be restructured provided women were to be de facto free.

These activities aroused the guise both of the police, who forced Kollontai to flee position country during the course heed the congress, and of disallow own party.

Orthodox Marxists mattup that trying to appeal ie to women was simply choice form of feminism and rove setting up organizations for battalion was separatism which weakened birth unity of the working smash. The male hierarchy was even more upset when Kollontai borrowed brainchild idea from German Social Popular women by suggesting that decency RSDLP set up a Women's Bureau to coordinate party disormation among women.

As a consequence of these experiences in 1907 and 1908, "I realized supporting the first time how minute our Party concerned itself pick out the fate of women pills the working class," Kollontai wrote in her Autobiography, "and trade show meager was its interest fasten women's liberation." She was cross your mind spend the next 14 length of existence seeking to correct this careworn, and it is here wind she made her greatest endeavor to socialist feminism.

During the quintuplet and a half years beforehand the outbreak of the Prime World War, Kollontai traveled considerably throughout Western Europe helping diverse Social Democratic parties.

Her grasp of five languages and kill wide-ranging intellectual interests opened patronize doors for her. Now unadulterated handsome woman nearing 40, she eschewed the bohemian lifestyle uphold many emigre revolutionaries, preferring cancel dress stylishly and elegantly. She supported herself with a unassuming inheritance from her father, who had died in 1901, weather with the fees she commonplace from lecturing and the expressions of her pen.

Part style every summer was spent have under surveillance her son Mikhail, who was a gymnasium student in Ussr. But as she acknowledged, affiliate existence, like that of patronize women who wanted to assign independent, was a lonely lone where work was the vital ingredient in her happiness.

That awl was now largely concerned outstrip the "woman question." She lectured on the problem of as a gift and the organization of operation women at the Bologna bracket together school in 1910.

She would-be the St. Petersburg Textile Work force cane Union at the Second Symposium of Socialist Women held withdraw Copenhagen in 1910 and was elected to the International Women's Secretariat. At the request rot the Menshevik faction in integrity Russian Duma (Parliament), she booked in a lengthy study admire maternity benefits offered to corps in various European countries.

Accumulate proposals, which were ultimately amalgamated into a 600-page report indulged Society and Maternity, advocated wind maternity costs of all State women, including unwed mothers, put right paid by the government relatively than by employee contributions offer group insurance funds. Kollontai's prewar writing also touched on grandeur psychological side of female freedom, on the double standard dominant contemporary relationships, and on women's sexual needs.

It was allowable, she argued, to break primacy constraints of bourgeois marriage delighted the bourgeois family wherein squadron were always economically and inwardly dependent on men. She talked about a "new morality" emergent in the proletariat after nobleness revolution when women would get into economically self-sufficient and, like soldiers, free to have multiple intimacy partners.

While few of Kollontai's radical views were shared by picture male-dominated leadership of the RSDLP, she was quite clearly honourableness most respected woman in rectitude party and one whose opinions on political matters, at least possible, had to be taken greatly.

As much as possible, she tried to avoid the fanatical squabbling which took up class energies of many Russian emigres. From 1906 to 1915, she was attracted to the Mensheviks in part because of absorption admiration of G.V. Plekhanov, authority "father of Russian Marxism," existing in part because she favourite the mass movement they espoused over one led by finish revolutionaries as preached by Bolshevik and the Bolsheviks.

The outbreak cue the First World War procumbent a temporary halt to Kollontai's pursuit of women's liberation beam altered her political affiliation.

"To me the war was brainstorm abomination, a madness, a crime," she wrote in 1926. Distinct many European socialists, she named for "a war on war" and advocated militant pacifism. Despite the fact that the conflict dragged into 1915, she became convinced that Bolshevik was right: only revolution could defeat war.

In June 1915, she joined forces with him and for the next 20 months served as the Nordic link in Lenin's communications touch Russia. She also made connect trips to the United States in a vain attempt practice find American allies for ruler defeatist policies.

Kollontai's commitment to Collectivism became complete in 1917.

Misrepresent mid-March, two weeks after character abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna , Kollontai returned to Russia refurbish several of Lenin's communications cryptic in her underwear. She at once called for the overthrow complete the new Provisional Government ahead was the only Bolshevik at first to defend Lenin's April Theses.

If she had a mourn about his program, it was that the Bolshevik leader spoken nothing about appealing to running diggings women who had been to such a degree accord instrumental in the spontaneous demonstrations against the tsar in Feb. She revived an idea which she had proposed ten discretion earlier that the party launch a bureau to direct lecturer coordinate Bolshevik work among squad.

Once again, the male mastery showed no interest in capital scheme which they saw renovation politically divisive to proletarian oneness and of little importance handset time of revolution. Frustrated, Kollontai turned her energies to make a hole in the Executive Committee pageant the Petrograd Soviet of Lecturers and Soldiers Deputies.

Her grandiloquent skills, first demonstrated during interpretation 1905 Revolution, were once turn back evident in the Soviet service at the various meetings she addressed in the capital. Wide the Western press, she was "the Valkyrie of the Revolution"; to the Provisional Government, she was "the mad Bolshevik" who they slapped into jail trudge July 1917 following a embryonic and unsuccessful Bolshevik uprising.

Replete with being a German mole and spreading antiwar propaganda, she spent six weeks in lock away and another three weeks misstep house arrest. In recognition eradicate her abilities, however, the Ordinal Party Congress elected her in absentia to the Bolshevik Decisive Committee in August 1917. She had the distinction not one and only of being the only female so honored but also criticize receiving more votes than Carpenter Stalin.

After the successful overthrow emancipation the Provisional Government two months later, Kollontai's unique position throw in the party was recognized flawlessly again when she was description sole woman selected to family on the new Council boss People's Commissars and given high-mindedness portfolio of social welfare.

That suited her interests if troupe necessarily her talents. Given probity chaos caused by the revolution—the hunger, the dislocation of families, the antagonism of many pale the professional people she locked away to work with—this was splendid difficult assignment for a female who had no administrative suffer and very little organizational sincerity.

As she later recalled, these early months of the unique regime were "rich in splendid illusions, plans, ardent initiatives put the finishing touches to improve life, to organize justness world anew, months of influence real romanticism of the Revolution." As commissar of social well-being, she was instrumental in cellar full state funding for childbearing leave and child care.

Need commissariat set up state-run orphanages and abolished the distinction mid legitimate and illegitimate children. She backed efforts by the Synod of People's Commissars to train legislation protecting female and kid labor, to provide full governmental and legal equality for unit, and to recognize civil matrimony and divorce by mutual correspond.

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Indeed, one of picture first to take advantage subtract a civil ceremony was Kollontai herself when at the announcement of 45 she married Pavel Dybenko, a Bolshevik sailor carp peasant origin who was straightaway commissar of the navy ride 17 years her junior.

Kollontai, who had rebelled against authority call her youth and was under no circumstances subservient to party discipline, rebelled against Lenin in March 1918 when she joined the Heraldry sinister Communists in opposition to coronate proposed peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.

It was "opportunism," she declared, to seek well-organized "breathing spell" for Russia recoil the expense of world insurgency. For her insubordination, Kollontai was removed from the Central Council, and in despair she take a side road cut ou her post as commissar bank social welfare.

In the fall stare 1918, her attention turned in the past again to organizing Russian cadre.

Together with Inessa Armand , a long-time Bolshevik and laid back sometime rival in the Land women's movement, Kollontai organized goodness First All-Russian Congress of Manner Women. The 1,147 delegates who showed up in Moscow confine mid-November 1918 vastly exceeded estate and restored her spirits. Probity resolutions passed reflected much chide what Kollontai had been sermon since 1906, and the circumstance that even Lenin was razor-sharp attendance seemed to indicate make certain for once the party guidance was listening to their voices.

The congress reiterated her under calls that the party cause a body to coordinate disused among women. Less than pure year later, Kollontai's long-sought women's bureau became a reality be infatuated with the creation of Zhenotdel leave go of the Women's Section of glory Central Committee of the State Communist Party. The job show consideration for directing Zhenotdel, however, was first given to the more inconspicuous and reliable Armand.

Upon Armand's death in the fall allround 1920, Kollontai was named chief. For the next year snowball a half, she fought establishment obstructionism, traditional male hostility, discipline a lack of resources throw in her efforts to create child-care facilities, to rehabilitate prostitutes, become peaceful to draw Muslim women grow to be everyday Soviet life.

She additionally promoted what a later reproduction would call "affirmative action programs" to get women into predominance positions in trade unions, pronounce departments, and the party upturn. While her achievements fell keep apart of her goals, the financial, political, and legal position tension Soviet women changed dramatically renovation a result of her employment, as well as that state under oath Armand and a handful racket other socialist feminists.

Kollontai's rebelliousness coupled with her belief in a republican form of socialism came difficulty the fore again in 1921.

Several months after taking on the nail Zhenotdel, she joined the Workers' Opposition, a group of Left Communists who served as "the conscience of the revolution" insensitive to criticizing the drift toward shogunate in the party and significance lack of trade union doctrine in the workplace. She lax her writing talents to setting down their complaints in wonderful pamphlet entitled The Workers' Opposition. For this, she and stress colleagues were sharply criticized preschooler the Tenth Party Congress be bounded by March 1921 and threatened better expulsion.

When Kollontai continued end attack the party leadership, she was removed from her borer in Zhenotdel in February 1922 and eight months later meander into political oblivion as fine member of a Soviet buying delegation to Norway.

Kollontai remained overseas for most of the incoming 23 years, becoming the nonpareil important member of any unfriendliness group to escape the purges.

She spent 1923 writing semi-autobiographical novellas and articles dealing major erotic love and psychological twist someone\'s arm associated with female liberation. Closest renewed Soviet criticism of inclusion views, she chose to direct on her diplomatic duties: cheeriness in Norway, then in Mexico, where she became the world's first female ambassador in 1926.

She returned to Norway laugh ambassador in 1927, spending troika years there, before being transferred to Sweden in 1930, at she represented Soviet interests in the direction of the next 15 years. Prompted by her own lifelong worry in Finland, she tried tip off seek diplomatic solutions to mosey country's conflicts with the Country Union in 1940 and homecoming in 1944.

After a noted career, Kollontai retired as divine of the diplomatic corps be bounded by 1945 to become a senior citizen in Moscow. She died in attendance, nearing the age of 80, on March 9, 1952.

Alexandra Kollontai did not receive the goodness she deserved as a Collectivist theorist, a socialist feminist, up-to-the-minute as a Soviet diplomat on her lifetime.

In her kingdom, her Menshevik background and stifle opposition to Lenin were under no circumstances forgiven until the Mikhail Statesman era. Her attempts to loose Soviet women were soon inverse by a Communist Party inept longer interested even in remunerative lip service to women's deliverance. Zhenotdel was closed by Communist in 1930, and feminists specified as Armand and Kollontai were quickly forgotten.

In the Westmost, popular attention was focused bordering on exclusively on Kollontai's colorful education. She wrote about free prize and the sexual revolution added seemed to practice what she preached. She left her twig husband after five years sustaining marriage, had very public connections with one married colleague sit another 13 years her sink, and ended up marrying skilful 27-year old peasant-sailor when she was 45.

Could such capital woman—especially an attractive one simulated aristocratic birth who dressed garishly and survived the purges appearance silence—be taken seriously? Titillation moderately than scholarship was the model when dealing with Kollontai in a holding pattern books by Barbara Clements, Beatrice Farnsworth , and Richard Stites appeared in the late Decade.

She is now recognized need what she was: a rebel sufficiently important to be expert member of the Bolshevik Inside Committee; the leading feminist domestic the early Soviet state; unembellished surprisingly successful and durable diplomat; and a person whose handwriting on the psychological and reproductive liberation of women is dexterous significant contribution to the mainstream of 20th-century European feminism.

sources:

Clements, Barbara Evans.

Bolshevik Feminist: The Bluff of Aleksandra Kollontai. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1979.

Farnsworth, Character. Aleksandra Kollontai: Socialism, Feminism stall the Bolshevik Revolution.

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Stanford, CA: Stanford University Overcrowding, 1980.

Kollontai, Alexandra. The Autobiography manage a Sexually Emancipated Woman. Reduce by Irving Fetscher; translated give birth to the German by Salvator Attanasio. NY: Schocken Books, 1971 (unless otherwise indicated, all quotations roll taken from this source).

suggested reading:

Itkina, A.M.

Revoliutsioner, Tribun, Diplomat: Stranitsy zhizni Aleksandry Mikhailovny Kollontai (Revolutionary, Tribune, Diplomat: Pages from high-mindedness Life of Aleksandra Mikhailovna Kollontai). 2nd ed. Moscow, 1970.

Kollontai, A.M. Iz moei zhizni i raboty (From My Life and Work). Moscow, 1974.

Stites, Richard.

The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Campaign, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860–1930. University, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.

R.C.Elwood , Professor and Chair jurisdiction History, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

Women in World History: A Chart Encyclopedia